Work time measurements are the starting point for any calculation of unit costs of machine exploitation; therefore, the accuracy of evaluating these costs determines the economic effectiveness of technological solutions employed in forest work. The research aimed to determine the level of measurement error of harvester operation times by means of a chronometric method. Methods: Different methods for measuring the components of the work cycle in cut-to-length harvesting operations were compared. These operations consisted of a thinning and a clear-cut harvesting operation in two Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in central Poland. The average duration of a work cycle was determined from cumulative timing using either the on-board PSION microcomputers or analysis of video footage. Results from these two methods were compared with the standard method used in work study which is snap-back timing (i.e. the timer is reset at the end of each activity within the work cycle, the average time for each activity calculated and then summed to give the average cycle time) using the PSION microcomputer. Results: The average duration of the work cycles estimated from cumulative timing of video footage were 55.0 and 52.3 s for the thinning and clear-cut operations, respectively. The cumulative timing method using the PSION on-board computer underestimated these cycle times by ca. 14% in thinning operations and by 22% in clear-cut operations. The snap-back timing method, which measures the duration of certain operations separately, underestimated the average work cycle time in the clear-cut operation by 6% but overestimated it by ca. 12% in the thinning operation. In both operations, most of the difference in work cycle time estimates were due to differences in the time recorded for delimbing and bucking activities. Conclusions: The accuracy of work time measurement taken using the standard methods—snap-back timing—depends on the variability of work cycles. The hitherto employed method of snap-back timing is more accurate than the cumulative timing method with respect to both stable and more changeable work cycles.

Bamboo is among the important plants that help shape the socio-economic fabric of rural India. It provides employment, sustains business ventures, has medicinal applications and even helps in carbon sequestration. Out of 125 indigenous species, Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees occupies 53% of the area of bamboo in the country. Moreover, D. strictus may be used in afforestation of wastelands and rural development programmes due to its adaptability in wider landscapes. Dendrocalamus strictus has different growth forms based on edaphic factors and climatic conditions. DNA profiling was used to analyse the genetic diversity among the different growth forms of D. strictus present in three different locations of Uttarakhand. Methods: The study area includes three locations, first, reserve forest of the Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun; second, Shivpuri near Byasi, Rishikesh; and third, Chiriapur range (Haridwar district). A standard method was used to isolate DNA from young leaves from ten clumps of each growth form. Ten RAPD primers were screened for polymorphism from A and N operon primers and a standard PCR protocol was followed to amplify and visualise DNA bands. The data matrix was analysed and interpreted using statistical software and methods. Results: The cluster analysis, genetic structure parameters, moderate coefficient of gene differentiation and low gene flow value all indicated that these growth forms are genetically dissimilar and that geographic separation as well as physiological/flowering barriers has influenced these variations. These genetically different growth forms can be called ecotypes. Conclusions: Such a study has not been attempted previously with bamboo and will help inform the conservation of the genetic pool of bamboo ecotypes. Seeds of these ecotypes are monocarpic in nature, which means that bamboo plants flower once in their lifetime, so they must be collected and multiplied (as plantations) in their respective habitats.

Various double sampling methods using both target and auxiliary variables have been developed over many years for use in natural resource inventory. Methods: Simulations of inventory were carried out using four different ratio estimators and model-assisted estimation in each of five rather different example forest populations. Estimates of population means and their standard errors from each of these methods were compared with those obtained using simple random sampling. Results: With all five double sampling estimators, bias in estimates of means and standard errors (the latter estimated analytically or through bootstrapping) was generally small and consistent with theoretical expectations. Their efficiency increased as either the first- or second-phase sample sizes increased. All were more efficient than estimates obtained using simple random sampling as long as there was some positive level of correlation between the target and auxiliary variable. However, none of the double sampling estimators was more efficient than any of the others. Conclusions: For many forest inventory tasks, users may well be able to use whichever of the estimators is most convenient to their purpose. However, model-assisted estimation has application in a wider range of circumstances than the other methods, which perhaps recommends it for general use.

The Valdivian temperate rainforest, one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots, is under a continued process of degradation through mismanagement. An approach to reverse this situation might be the development of uneven-aged silviculture, combining biodiversity conservation and timber production. Methods: We examined the short-term effects of single-tree selection cutting on stand structure and tree species (richness, diversity and composition) in the Llancahue Experimental Forest in south-central Chile to quantify changes in comparison with old-growth rainforests of the evergreen forest type. We compared plots with high and low residual basal areas (60 and 40 m2 ha−1) and a control old-growth forest. Results: Both cutting regimes achieved a balanced structure with reverse-J diameter distribution, continuous forest cover and sufficient small-sized trees. Compared to the old-growth forest, there were no significant changes in tree species richness and diversity. The only shortcomings detected were significant reductions in diameter and height complexity as assessed by the Gini coefficient, Shannon H′ and standard deviation, with a significantly lower number of large-sized trees (dbh 50 cm+, height 23 m+), especially in the low residual basal area regime. Conclusions: We suggest the intentional retention of a certain number of large-sized and emergent trees as strategy for biodiversity conservation. If adjusted accordingly, single-tree selection is a promising approach to retain many old-growth attributes of the Valdivian rainforest in managed stands while providing timber for landowners.

Additional file to 'Short-term effects of single-tree selection cutting on stand structure and tree species composition in Valdivian rainforests of Chile'

Climate change represents a considerable source of uncertainty with respect to the long-term health and productivity of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.) plantations in southeastern China. Methods: We employed the process-based, stand-level model FORECAST Climate to investigate the potential impact of four alternative climate-change scenarios on the long-term growth and development of Chinese fir plantations in Fujian province, China. The capability of the model to project seasonal patterns of productivity related to variation in temperature and moisture availability was evaluated using 11 years of 8-day composite MODIS remote sensing data. Results: Simulation results suggest climate change will lead to a modest increase in long-term stemwood biomass production (6.1 to 12.1% after 30 to 60 years). The positive impact of climate change was largely attributable to both a lengthening of the growing season and an increase in nutrient-cycling rates. The increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations associated with the different emission scenarios led to an increase in water-use efficiency and a small increase in productivity. While the model predicted an overall increase in dry-season moisture stress, it did not predict increased levels of drought-related mortality. Conclusions: Climate change is expected have positive impact on the growth of Chinese fir in the Fujian region of China. However, the projected increase in plantation productivity associated with climate change may not be realised if the latter also results in enhanced activity of biotic and abiotic disturbance agents.

Two indices, the 300 Index and Site Index, are commonly used to quantify productivity of Pinus radiata D.Don within New Zealand. Although maps of these indices exist, availability of new data and modifications to underlying models makes a refit of these prediction surfaces desirable. Prediction errors of such surfaces have only been reported at a plot-level scale, but their application is invariably at a larger scale where prediction accuracy should be better. The objectives of this study were to: (i) develop updated predictive surfaces for the 300 Index and Site Index; and (ii) characterise the relationship between prediction error and spatial scale for both surfaces. Methods: Models were developed using a dataset of 4108 permanent sample plots from throughout New Zealand. Productivity indices were estimated from plot measurements and environmental variables extracted for each plot. Data were randomly split into fitting and validation datasets and surfaces developed from the fitting dataset for the 300 Index and Site Index using partial least squares regression, ordinary kriging and regression kriging. Prediction accuracy across a range of scales from 0.2 to 200 km was evaluated using the validation dataset. Results: Regression kriging was found to be the most accurate method for describing spatial variation in the 300 Index and Site Index across New Zealand. Examination of changes in prediction error with spatial scale demonstrated a gradual decline in error from the plot level with increasing scale. Conclusions: This study provides accurate maps of both the 300 Index and Site Index across New Zealand. Analysis of the effects of scale on prediction accuracy indicates that 95% confidence intervals of predictions for the 300 Index based on these maps averaged over an area of about 700 ha are half those of plot-level predictions and halve again at a scale of about 20,000 ha. For the Site Index, the improvement in precision with increasing scale is more gradual with 95% confidence intervals halving at a scale of about 20,000 ha and halving again at a scale of about 250,000 ha.

Irradiation is accepted as a phytosanitary treatment for horticultural products by many countries. Irradiation is a potential alternative to chemical fumigation for wood products; however, data supporting its efficacy against potential forestry pests is limited. Methods: Irradiation efficacy data were obtained experimentally for Arhopalus ferus (Mulsant) and Hylurgus ligniperda (F.). The results are compared to existing ionising-radiation treatment data for various bark and wood-boring beetles species as found in the International Database on Insect Disinfestation and Sterilization (IDIDAS) and the published literature. Results: Existing IDIDAS records suggest that the effective dose required to sterilise insects in the families Cerambycidae and Scolytinae is < 150 Gy. Estimated LD99 obtained here for the sterility of adult A. ferus were 44.1 Gy (LD99, ± 15.3, 95% CI) and eggs 40.4 Gy (± 9.8, 95% CI). Our results suggest that an effective sterilisation dose for A. ferus eggs will be from 20 to 40 Gy; however, LD99 dose estimates were not obtained for other life stages. Adult H. ligniperda were more tolerant of radiation with 1.6% of adults producing viable eggs at doses of between 100 and 150 Gy despite 100% sterility being recorded at 75 and 175 Gy. Conclusions: Our results are consistent with existing studies of other bark and wood-boring beetles. The doses tested here were equivalent to, or lower than, those used in previous studies. Arhopalusferus adults were less tolerant to ionising radiation than the published literature for other Cerambycidae. Further studies with adult H. ligniperda are recommended as 150 Gy represents the upper limit currently reported in IDIDAS for other Scolytinae. An assessment of the potential cost-effectiveness of irradiation as a phytosanitary treatment at the range of doses identified in this study should be conducted before committing to further efficacy testing.

The gap between demand and supply of bamboo is increasing daily due to the destruction of natural bamboo resources. Therefore, there is a pressing need to find suitable methods for large-scale propagation of bamboo. Currently, bamboo is propagated mainly using vegetative means since seed supplies are often variable or limited. Methods: Current literature on available methods of bamboo propagation (seed and vegetative) were reviewed to establish the key limiting factors involved in the propagation of bamboo. Results: The vegetative propagation of bamboo via culm cuttings was found to be the simplest and most cost-effective method developed over the last few decades. Conclusions: Additional work is required to increase the success rate of culm cuttings, and finding improved substrates for the propagules could be one area of investigation.

Measurement of microfibril angle (MFA) in the S2 layer of the cell walls of wood using speed of sound in wood has become a common way to estimate wood stiffness and stability. Measurements across the radius of a disc can be critical, but sonic testing needs to be validated against direct measurements of MFA. Methods: A robotic machine that uses two transducers to detect the speed of sound through discs of wood from tree stems was validated by comparing its measurements with wood MFA, air-dry density, and modulus of elasticity assessed by X-ray diffractometry through the “Silviscan” system. Results: Ultrasonic velocity (USV) was highly correlated with MFA but not with air-dry density. Variable moving averages were assessed in order to estimate the resolution of the USV measurements, and it appeared that the diameter of the swath detected by the transducers was between 23 and 30 mm. Conclusions: It was concluded that MFA in wood samples can be assessed rapidly and cheaply using USV measurements but at lower resolution than assessments using X-ray diffractometry.

Wood density is an important property that affects the performance of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) timber. In order to develop strategies to achieve certain end-product outcomes, forest managers and wood processors require information on the variation in wood density across sites, among trees within a stand and within trees. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop models explaining the variation in outerwood density among sites and among trees within a stand, and the radial and longitudinal variation of wood density within a tree. Methods: An extensive dataset was assembled containing wood density measurements from historical studies carried out over a period spanning more than 50 years. The dataset contained breast height outerwood density cores from approximately 10,800 individual trees sampled from 312 stands throughout New Zealand, pith-to-bark radial density profiles from 515 trees from 47 stands, and discs taken from multiple heights in 172 trees from 21 stands. Linear and non-linear mixed models were developed using these data to explain the variation in inter- and intra-tree variation in Douglas-fir wood density. Results: Breast height outerwood density was positively related to mean annual air temperature in stands planted after 1969. This relationship was less apparent in older North Island stands, possibly due to the confounding influences of genetic differences. After adjusting for age and temperature, wood density was also positively related to soil carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) ratio in South Island stands where data on soil C:N ratio were available. There was only a minimal effect of stand density on breast height outerwood density, and a weak negative relationship between wood density and tree diameter within a stand. Within a stem, wood density decreased over the first seven rings from the pith and gradually increased beyond ring ten, eventually stabilising by ring 30. Longitudinal variation in wood density exhibited a sigmoidal pattern, being fairly constant over most of the height but increasing in the lower stem and decreasing in the upper stem. Conclusions: The study has provided greater insight into the extent and drivers of variation in Douglas-fir wood density, particularly the relative contributions of site and silviculture. The models developed to explain these trends in wood density have been coupled together and linked to a growth and yield simulator which also predicts branching characteristics to estimate the impact of different factors, primarily site, on the wood density distribution of log product assortments. Further work is required to investigate the impacts of genetic and soil properties on wood density, which may improve our understanding of site-level variation in wood density.

Early developmental stages of plants are expected to be a major bottleneck to recruitment. Information on the response of seedling to anticipated water availability is urgently needed in regions where tree seedlings may experience more frequent water deficits. In this paper, we focused on the influence of water deficit on different species (larch vs. birch) and origins (xeric vs. mesic). Methods: Prince Rupprecht’s larch (Larix gmelinii var. principis-rupprechtii (Mayr) Pilg.) and white birch (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev) from northern China were selected to represent the xeric origin. Eastern larch (Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marshall) from eastern Canada were selected to represent the mesic origin. For each species, half of seedlings were assigned to a well-watered treatment (WW, 75% water holding capacity (WHC) and the other half to a low-watered treatment (LW, 35% WHC). After 20 weeks of treatment, we collected data on morphological indexes of shoot height, root collar diameter, total leaf area and total root area; measured photosynthetic rate (Asat), transpiration rate (E), photosynthetic water-use efficiency (WUE) and apparent chlorophyll concentration (Chl); harvested seedlings and measured biomass allocation of leaf, stem and root. Results: We found that reduced photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and increased water-use efficiency were physiological responses of the four species to drought, and the responses varied among the species. All larch seedlings appeared no leaf shedding, survived through the drought treatment and showed a longer duration and high tolerance to drought. In low-watered conditions, survival rate, biomass, shoot height, root collar diameter, total leaf area, total root area and chlorophyll concentration of birch seedlings were significantly decreased. The response of seedlings to water deficits also differed according to the seed origins. Xeric origin of Prince Rupprecht’s larch was more affected than mesic origin of eastern larch, mainly because Prince Rupprecht’s larch originated in a narrower range of mountainous regions, resulting in lower adaptation of this species to water deficits, whereas eastern larch was distributed widely along coastal regions, contributing to higher phenotypic plasticity to variable soil conditions. Similarly, higher plasticity of paper birch may be responsible for its better performance in the low-watered treatment than white birch. Conclusions: Larch seedlings were less sensitive to water deficit than birch seedlings. Larch seedlings were characteristics of a conservative water-use strategy, whereas birch seedlings responded with a profligate water-use strategy. Plasticity or adaptation of seedlings outweighs the seed origins in determining their drought responses.

Understanding pathways of genetic information transfer from one generation to another is particularly important when open-pollinated seeds are collected for reforestation or for enrichment of native forests. Nothofagus alpina (Poepp. & Endl.) Oerst. is native to temperate forests of southern Chile and Argentina. However, lack of knowledge of its reproductive biology has hampered its management in forest plantations and conservation of natural populations. Therefore, a clonal seed orchard of N. alpina in southern Chile was used to analyse the mating system and to estimate the number of pollen donors in this species. Methods: The mating system was investigated using manual pollination tests on six clones, open-pollinated seeds were collected from four other clones to study gene flow and paternity analysis was done on progenies using microsatellite genetic markers. Pollen donors were inferred for 194 offspring of four adult trees using five microsatellite loci and an exclusion process. Results: This species is exogamous and largely self-incompatible. The effective number of pollen donors found was 5, which was less than the 19 expected theoretically. Results indicated that pollen flow in the seed orchard is deficient. This could be a result of limitations in the wind-pollination system, coupled with phenological dissynchrony among clones present. Conclusions: N. alpina is an exogamous, highly self-incompatible species. It does not reproduce through agamospermy, since there was no seed formation in the absence of pollen. Only a few trees contributed to the paternity of the progeny evaluated. This finding indicates that there exists a limited gene flow within the orchard due to reproductive isolation among genotypes.

Pinus radiata D.Don is in its third generation of selective breeding on contrasting site types in central Chile, creating interest in its responses to selection and any differential adaptation to site types. We studied the phenotypic variability of growth traits, survival and six ecophysiological traits in 30 open- and control-pollinated families, representing two breeding regions and three breeding generations, in a 2-year-old P. radiata field trial on a sandy soil in the Mediterranean drylands of Central Chile. Findings: Growth, survival and the ecophysiological traits did not differ between the regional origin of the breeding populations. However, breeding-generation effects were significant for height and diameter. As expected, growth traits showed progressive improvement with successive generations. Individual-family effects were evident for all traits except one ecophysiological trait. Conclusions: Breeding has evidently improved early growth performance in the field, despite no clear effect of regional breeding population, but no such effects were observed for the ecophysiological traits. Despite the current study demonstrating considerable family variation at age 2 years, it is unclear how these results relate to performance of mature trees in the field.

A model of individual tree growth using simple predictors in a managed black beech (Fuscospora solandri (Hook.f.) Heenan & Smissen) forest could provide a useful tool for predicting future stand characteristics. Methods: Data from permanent sample plots were used to develop a framework for modelling individual tree growth in Woodside forest, a managed black beech forest in north Canterbury (New Zealand). We tested three mixed-effect models to identify effects of sites, treatment (thinnings), individual tree size and competition on tree growth rates. Results: A power function amended with variables specifying stand basal area and thinning treatment was best suited for black beech, explaining about 55% of the variation in growth rates. Treatment history (thinnings), as well as the individual tree size and the stand basal area, strongly affected tree diameter growth. Only 3% of the variation in diameter growth rates was explained by plot-specific effect which was less than observed in earlier studies. Conclusions: All predictor variables (management history, individual tree diameter and stand basal area) are quite simple to measure in the field and could be easily used to predict diameter increments in managed or unmanaged forests. A limitation of our study was that available growth data in Woodside were from small plots, focused on a small number of trees and a narrow range of diameters. However, our results are a good starting point, providing a promising framework for further modelling of tree growth in Woodside forest from new permanent plot data.

Patterns of seed germination and subsequent seedling growth of the endemic species Nothofagus glauca (Phil.) Krasser (Lophozonia glauca) (Hualo) were studied in two provenances from Mediterranean Central Chile (pre-Andean mountain range provenance and coastal range provenance). The main aim of the study was to determine differences in seed germination and seedling growth at the intra- and inter-provenance levels. Methods: The experiment was carried out with seeds from two provenances and four to five different sites from each provenance. Seed germination tests were conducted in 10 × 1 m beds in a greenhouse. Germinated seeds were sown in 140-mL containers and cultivated under nursery conditions for 8 months. After that period, growth and survival were measured. Results: Germination, growth and survival were highly variable at the intra-provenance level. Sites from the pre-Andean mountain range provenance exhibited lower germination capacity (33.1%) and seedling survival (76.3%) than sites from the Coastal range provenance (40.2 and 91.3%, respectively). Conclusions: Provenance variability was important for seed mass and germination, and seedling survival, while intra-provenance variability was systematically higher, whatever the functional trait considered, indicating a high potential capacity of the species to adapt to climate change. This intra-provenance variability must be conserved with the use of local seed. In our case, pre-Andean sites must be established in high-elevation environments, while coastal provenances must be restricted to more lowland and coastal environments.

StochPV is a computer programme enabling the risks and uncertainties inherent in even-aged timber growing to be recognised through stochastic analysis. Most financial analyses of even-aged plantation or forest stands have used deterministic analyses, such that a single set of volumes, costs and prices yields a single answer for the present value. Risks and uncertainties are ignored, even though well-recognised by practitioners. StochPV provides a probability distribution, not just a single value, for the present value of an even-aged stand, allowing practitioners to better gauge their decisions regarding the impact of risks and uncertainties on silvicultural options and stand valuation. More generally, it will enable analysts to explore whether or when deterministic analyses are a reliable guide for such decisions. Methods: Means and coefficients of variation, together with maximum and minimum values and correlation coefficients of prices and costs, are read in via a spreadsheet and used to estimate beta distribution parameters for each data cell. The resulting distributions can be reviewed visually and amended, if necessary. Fire frequency and fire salvage data are also read in via spreadsheet. Univariate or multivariate pseudo-random values are simulated for each variable involved, enabling the present value to be calculated for each iteration. Present value is calculated for the stochastic analogues of Faustmann perpetual rotations and a single rotation, the latter taking account of the initial land cost and revenue at the end of that rotation. The present values of the many iterations are then used to calculate mean, standard deviation and other summary statistics. Results: The programme integrates all known risks relating to stand management in an analytical framework that is relatively simple and communicable. The use of beta distributions provides flexibility in representing the nature of the empirical distributions involved. Inter-relationships between kindred variables are taken into account using multivariate distributions based on copulas and the marginal distributions involved. Conclusions: The programme results are suitable for evaluation of first-degree stochastic dominance and could also be applied to second-degree stochastic dominance if the decision-maker had a material aversion to risk, all necessary data being available as outputs of the programme.

The productive potential of European species of forest tree assumes particular importance in the context of populations adapting to accelerating climatic change. Genotype-environment interaction (G × E) was studied to determine Picea abies (L.) H.Karst. (Norway spruce) inter-population variation, characterising their adaptability to the growing conditions in north-eastern Poland. The data were analysed from 22 populations evaluated in four experimental sites based on 5-year height. To identify best-adapted as well as specifically adapted populations, GGE biplots were performed. Findings: Analysis of multi-environment trial (MET) data revealed significant differences between four experimental sites, as well as interactions between populations and sites. However, it proved possible to identify specifically adapted populations achieving high values for the trait at specific sites only, although some performed relatively well across several sites. Conclusions: The productive potential of the Norway spruce populations in north-eastern Poland is associated with specific adaptation of given populations to growth conditions at the experimental sites. However, in the set of populations studied can also be found some capable of average but stable growth in all experimental sites.

Hybrid eco-physiological/mensurational models of forest production generally require monthly meteorological estimates at local points in the landscape as inputs. Where to obtain these estimates and how best to localise them are important questions for modellers. Data collected from nine independent meteorological stations were compared with estimates from the nearest grid points of the Virtual Climate Station Network created by the New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) and also to estimates from NIWA’s nearest actual meteorological stations. Findings: Localisation of temperature estimates was attempted through simple adiabatic adjustments of NIWA’s data and also adjustments that use elevation above sea level, latitude and distance from the sea. The latter adjustment was found to be slightly better than simple adiabatic adjustment. Results showed that useable local estimates can be obtained from absolute global solar radiation and adjusted mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures although there were small amounts of bias. Rainfall and relative humidity were not as well estimated for local points as the other variables and these poorer estimates may constrain our ability to model forest productivity in drier regions of New Zealand. Conclusions: Monthly mean global radiation, and suitably adjusted estimates of mean daily maximum and minimum temperature from the Virtual Climate Station Network were found to estimate these properties for points in the landscape with reasonable precision and small bias. Rainfall, however, was imprecisely estimated.

Favourable interactions between genotype, site and silviculture are desired for growing radiata pine, site and silviculture being two components of environment. Our challenge is to characterise the interactions so as to exploit them to advantage. Four classes of interaction are involved: three first-order interactions between pairs of factors; and one second-order interaction involving all three factors. Also of interest is to partition the interactions into two types: involving rank change of genotypes (RC interaction) and differing level of expression of genotypic differences among environments (LoE interaction). Key issues: Tree breeders’ immediate concern is with main effects of environment and interaction effects on genotypes’ performance, yet prime interest for research and policy decisions lies in the role of environments and specific environmental factors in generating interactions. Of the two types of interaction, RC seems generally more important for breeding operations with LoE more so for deployment decisions. Investigation: Existing information, and provisional expectations of interactions, is to be reviewed, mostly qualitatively, in terms of the comparative importance of RC and varying LoE. This will be done, for the first-order interactions, for various traits. Second-order interactions are as yet almost entirely conjectural. A framework is offered for accumulating both input from others and future research findings. Key information: In radiata pine, growth traits, especially stem diameter, tend to show marked RC interaction with site. Tree-form traits, however, seem mainly subject to LoE interaction, and disease resistance is intensely so. Among wood properties, some show very little interaction, while LoE interaction seems to occur for some other properties.

Narrow-sense heritabilities of the wood properties of 2-year-old Eucalyptus bosistoana F.Muell. were estimated from 623 stems. Findings: Heritability estimates were calculated for the following: growth strain (0.63), density (0.54), diameter (0.76), volumetric shrinkage (0.29), acoustic velocity (0.97) and stiffness (0.82). A modified version of the splitting test for detecting growth strain is described. The modified rapid-testing procedure resulted in left-censored growth strain data, so a Bayesian approach was implemented to reduce errors associated with censored data sets. Conclusions: Correlations between wood properties are presented and discussed, as well as trade-offs when shifting trait means by selective breeding.

Maximising forest profitability is important from both economic and ecological perspectives. Managers of forest areas gain utility by optimising profits, and maximising the efficiency of a forest stand is also beneficial to the natural environment. This study presents a method to estimate and visualise forestry profitability based on variables defined in previous studies. The design space included economic and forest stand factors that can affect profitability. A contribution index analysis identified factors that significantly impact profitability, and these factors were then applied to data collected from a forest area in Japan. The effects of the two primary factors, discount rate and rotation period length, on a measure of profitability, the soil expectation value, were visualised in three-dimensional space. Methods: The site used in this study, located by Morotsuka village in the Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan. Variables previously found to have significant effects on forestry profitability were used to define a design space of variables for calculating and displaying profitability, after which data from the cited study were used to estimate the variables’ SEV contribution indices. The effects of the important factors for forestry profitability were then analysed and visualised. Dimensions of the design space were constructed from previously published forestry inventory data and consisted of two stand condition factors, three site condition factors, one economic condition factor and one silvicultural planning factor. This study used previously published inventory data regarding stand age, site index and tree species. Additionally, the forestry profit simulator was used to estimate the optimal rotation period in terms of soil expectation value. The relationships between SEV and these significant factors were then graphically visualised. The significant factors identified as described above were used to estimate SEV-based profitability distributions, based on the inventory data used to construct the design space and optimal rotation periods, for the studied forest. Results: Changes in rotation period affected forestry profitability. However, the effect depended on stand, site and economic conditions. In scenarios characterised by relatively low site productivity index and harvesting area, which results in low profitability, rotation period changes did not have a strong effect on profitability. On the other hand, it was vital to select the optimal rotation period for high profitability areas as even a small deviation had a significant impact on profitability. Furthermore, it was shown that by synchronising the harvesting times of small, adjacent stands, the overall profitability increased through reductions in forest management costs. Conclusions: These results can help local forest management increase profitability through cooperation with individual forest owners. The presented method also has risk management applications, as it could be used to estimate the effects of external uncertainty variables on forest profitability.

Cloud forests are common in the Neotropics and an important part of its hydrological cycle. An investigation on how elevation and recovery from agriculture affects cloud forest floristics and physical structure in Ecuador was undertaken. Methods: Species and diameter at a specified height (dsh) of trees were sampled in large plots in Maquipucuna and Yanacocha cloud forests in Ecuador and also in smaller plots at Maquipucuna recovering after cropping in sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) and banana (Musa sp.). Results: (1) Palicourea sp. was the only species found at both primary sites; Vernonia pallens Sch.Bip., Erythrina megistophylla Diels, Nectandra sp., and Miconia sp. were found in both primary and secondary plots at Maquipucuna; and Miconia sp. was the only species in common between the Maquipucuna secondary plots and the primary plot at Yanacocha Reserve. (2) The mean stem size was similar between the primary Maquipucuna plots and the Yanacocha plot, but the Yanacocha plot had more total stems and more stems in each size category, which lead to more basal area, above-ground biomass, and canopy closure at Yanacocha compared to Maquipucuna. (3) In the secondary plots, there were no stems larger than 29 cm dsh at breast height, which lead to a much smaller mean stem size and lower basal area, above-ground biomass, and canopy closure compared to the primary plots at both sites. Conclusions: For the primary cloud forest at Maquipucuna, an increase in elevation changed the species-level floristics more than conversion to and then abandonment from agriculture; however, while a rise in elevation increased the number of stems, agriculture reduced stem size structure.

Pinus breeding programmes yield high numbers of seeds, but a non-destructive method to determine seed viability is still lacking. With the long reproductive cycle (up to 28 months) of Pinus species, determining when fertilisation occurs can assist when applying tissue culture methods like somatic embryogenesis (SE). For SE, pre-cotyledonary zygotic embryos are ideal for culture initiation (some weeks after fertilisation), while mature zygotic embryos are extracted and used for in vitro amplification during organogenesis. Achieving automated viability assays in extracted seeds would also be helpful, as would being able to find numbers and condition of seeds in immature or unopened cones. For such applications, microcomputer tomography (microCT) was a candidate technology. MicroCT was used to scan immature cones of Pinus radiata D.Don at four-weekly intervals after pollination to determine time of fertilisation. After harvesting of mature cones, a sample of 30 seeds of each of three Pinus species (P. radiata, P. patula Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. and P. pinaster Aiton) were scanned together in one microCT scan, and the same seed was allowed to germinate on moist filter paper after scanning. In addition, a mature unopened cone of P. radiata was also microCT-scanned to determine the potential for determining seed viability in situ, and the seed was subsequently extracted for examination. Findings: Fertilisation evidently occurred between weeks 64 and 68 after pollination in P. radiata. The microCT data for extracted seeds of the three species identified some seeds with large voids, which suggest non-viability (low to zero germination potential), and that was confirmed by the germination test. In addition to demonstrating in situ seed viability in the unopened P. radiata cone, the seed extraction revealed that some non-viable seeds remained trapped in the basal part of the dried cone. Conclusions: This case study demonstrates the feasibility of using microCT scans as a partially non-destructive method in Pinus tree breeding programmes to confirm fertilisation and determine seed viability. However, scanning the seed after extraction from mature cones can help to determine viability which is often hard to gauge from seeds’ external appearance. Future studies need to narrow the time window of fertilisation by scanning a wider variety of genotypes between weeks 64 and 68 after pollination.

Control of weeds is important for survival, growth and uniformity of planted conifers, such as Pinus radiata D.Don and Pseudotsuga mensiesii var. menziesii (Mirb.) Franco. Despite pressure to find environmentally benign herbicides for these species, little research has identified non-residual herbicides that are cost-effective and result in minimal growth loss compared to those used operationally. The objective of this study was to compare efficacy and cost of current operational practice to a range of alternative herbicide treatments for the establishment of these two species using data from two trials located at the same site. Methods: Treatments for each species were applied in both the first and second year following planting and included weed-free controls, operational practice using terbuthylazine and hexazinone (applied as both spot treatment and broadcast application) and a range of treatments consisting of combinations of clopyralid, triclopyr and haloxyfop (CTH), applied with or without oversowing with less competitive grasses and annual herbaceous species. Application of glyphosate during winter was included within the Pseudotsuga mensiesii trial as a first year treatment only and as a second year treatment following spot application of CTH in the first year. Results: For the Pinus radiata trial, broadcast application of CTH in spring of years 1 and 2 was most effective, with mean stand volume (m3 ha−1), at 2.5 years, exceeding the weed-free control and operational treatment by 8 and 11%, respectively, although these differences were not statistically significant at the 5% level. Use of the operational treatment as a spot in the first year, followed by broadcast application of CTH in the second year, was moderately effective when used with or without oversowing. For the Pseudotsuga mensiesii trial, the four most effective treatments were the operational treatment, broadcast application of CTH during year 1 (CTH-Dec), broadcast application of CTH during spring of years 1 and 2, and broadcast application of glyphosate during winter (winter glyphosate). Although not significantly different, at 2.5 years mean stand volumes in these treatments were on average 24, 29, 33 and 35% lower than the weed-free control, respectively. Both CTH-Dec and winter glyphosate were less expensive than the operational treatment. Conclusions: These results highlight potential treatments to either replace terbuthylazine and hexazinone, or reduce their use during establishment weed control for Pinus radiata and Pseudotsuga menziesii, notably for sites dominated by Cytisus scoparius L. (Scotch broom).