Median parturition (birth) date, spread of the season of parturition, and fawning percentages are given for a small sample from a wild population of sika deer in New Zealand. Results indicate that the reproductive cycles of sika and red deer are similar.

To date, most of the radiata pine harvested in New Zealand has come from untended "old crop" trees. Stands now being grown for the future will almost certainly be harvested at an earlier age than the 45 years which is current practice. This reduction in age will result in lower mean wood density compared with the "old crop", and therefore in reduced intrinsic strength for timber sawn from these stands. The relatively low proportions of outer-wood produced under these regimes may be offset in the butt log by improved timber grades obtained from pruning. Lower average wood density and larger knots in some of the upper logs can and should be compensated for by selective tree breeding to improve wood density, which is highly heritable. Machine stress grading or similar non-destructive testing is seen as an essential concomitant of such an improvement programme.

Profitability of radiata pine afforestation for the export log trade was re-evaluated for scrub-covered country of easy topography on site index 95 using normal management steps, and values as at 31 December 1973. Net yields of 576 m3 per hectare are obtained from 23-year rotations, with a silviculture aimed at producing two 11.9-m logs to a 15.25-cm top by planting at 2.1 x 3.05 m spacing, thinning (probably to waste) to 370 stems/ha at 10.7 m top height, and clearfelling at 33.5 m.

Management changes since 1987 include different site preparation and complete replanting as opposed to reliance on seeding and natural regeneration in subsequent rotations.

Break-even growing costs have increased by 27% (at 10% interest) but returns are 88% higher, hence internal rates of return (I.R.R.) have risen from 10.2 to 13.7% since 1967 (when social costs of roading and housing are included). Volumes 12% lower would reduce the I.R.R. to 13%, but the I.R.R. would still be 10% if the price-on-truck were to fall 46%.

The profitability of the export forest-processing industries in New Zealand remains undemonstrated, and it is recommended that growing forests for log export should become a major objective of forest expansion as it is demonstrably highly profitable and has little management risk.

The theory is discussed of individual tree compatible taper equations which predict the diameter along the stem as a function of tree height, diameter at breast height, and length, and which can be integrated to give a total volume equation equal to an existing volume equation. Existing non-linear forms of compatible taper equations were estimated for Pinus radiata D. Don but were unable to illustrate the neiloid shape of the butt, common in old crop P. radiata. Polynomial compatible taper equations were developed to provide greater flexibility in defining tree shape. These had standard errors of estimate of diameter of 1.4 cm for young crop and 2.4 cm for old crop radiata pine, and they had all the desirable characteristics of compatible taper equations.

Survival of Douglas fir stumps in thinned stands decreased irregularly until 6 years after felling and then tended to stabilise with about 20% remaining alive. These had produced extensive callus tissue and were presumably sustained by root grafts to living trees.

The most frequently occurring insects in the stumps, Pachycctes peregrines and Prionoplus reticularis were the only wood-invading insects found. Insect attack was not found in stumps less than 4 years old, and was most active on stumps 4 - 8 years old. Evidence of insect attack was found in 50.8% of stumps older than 6 years while 29.2% of these were dead but showed no sign of insect damage. Initial insect invasion was limited to sapwood of dead or partly dead stumps which had not previously been colonized by sheets of fungus under the bark.

Platypus apicalis, which is frequently found attacking Douglas fir log stockpiles in thinned stands, was not found in the stumps in this study.

In view of the limitations imposed on insect attack by the survival of stumps, by their apparent resistance to attack when less than 4 years old, and by the unattractiveness to insects of stumps with mycelium under bark, it was concluded that Douglas fir stumps in thinned stands of the type examined are, as a source of insect pests, not a threat to forest operations.

Rooted cuttings with well-developed shoot buds, of two clones, were grown for 15 weeks at root temperatures of 3°, 6°, 10°, and 15°C in a controlled environment cabinet at day/night air temperatures of 15°/13°C. Whereas leaf growth was restricted at the cooler soil conditions, there was no reduction in shoot extension growth. Root growth at the cooler conditions was confined to a few thick roots, while at the warmer conditions the new roots were thin with numerous laterals. Limited measurements of foliage relative water content showed no differences in water stress. Plants grown at the cooler soil conditions had higher ethanol-soluble sugar levels. Rates of transpiration and total photosynthesis with soil at 15°C were 300 and 125% respectively of those at 3°C. The two clones differed in their rates of transpiration and in the relative quantities of ¹⁴C-photosynthate translocated to the roots.

Other work has shown that shoot growth of young seedlings is retarded at low soil temperatures, but this does not appear to be so where shoot growth is determined by extensions of a pre-formed bud.

Water content and water potential in stools of three clones of Populus spp. were studied over the dormant period. To determine the site and magnitude of water loss, sealed and unsealed cuttings were held in a range of relative humidities and weighed periodically. Water status, growth initiation and early growth were determined using water culture techniques, and polyethylene glycol to produce differences in osmotic potential.

Water content was at a minimum at leaf-fall, and rose thereafter until budbreak. Gradients along the wand tended to become reversed, indicating upward water movement. Water potential rose slowly until mid-winter and then declined, at least until bud-break.

Overall water loss was proportional to relative humidity and duration of exposure. Cut ends were the major sites of loss. At low relative humidities, bud presence was associated with reduced water loss, with small but significant clonal differences.

Root primordia and buds showed a restricted development below -11 bar, while subsequent growth of shoots and roots were severely limited below -4 bar. Water content and water potential were highly correlated with the osmotic potentials applied. Small osmotic potentials often induced greater growth responses than zero potential treatments.

The significance of the experiment is discussed in relation to water status, viability of cuttings and to larger material used in plantings in the field.

Comparisons between well-watered and experimentally droughted trees of identical genotype, over a period of 5 years, showed that height and diameter growth of unstressed trees continued throughout the year at Rotorua, N.Z. Height increment attained maximum levels during October/November, followed by a peak of cross-sectional-area growth in February, and a secondary peak of height increment during March/April.

Drought imposed during winter/spring reduced height growth considerably during late spring, resulting in an apparent shift of peak growth; while summer/ autumn drought virtually eliminated the secondary peak of height increment. Cross-sectional-area increment was most strongly reduced by imposed drought during the summer and autumn, and showed marked but over-compensating rehydration responses following removal of drought stress. However, the adverse effects of sustained drought on height increment continued for some time after rewatering. Effects on bud and shoot development are also discussed.

A disorder which affected the 1973/74 Pinus radiata seedling crop locally in several areas of Sweetwater Forest Service Nursery, was found to be associated with abnormally low foliar zinc concentrations (< 6 ppm).

The visual symptoms generally corresponded closely to those described in the literature for pine seedlings raised in zinc-free solution culture.

Affected seedlings responded positively to foliar application of dilute zinc sulphate solution within 7-8 weeks of treatment, while control plants showed no improvement.

As several of the beds affected by the disorder were clearly divided along their length into 'good' and 'poor' halves, it is possible that the deficiency was induced by locally excessive fertilizer deposition during bed preparation.

Foliage of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) clones on four sites, at Glenbervie, Whakarewarewa (Whaka), Gwavas and Berwick State Forest, was analysed for N, P, K, Mg and Ca. Foliage longevity was recorded and crown density scored visually.

At Glenbervie P deficiency was confirmed, and Ca deficiency was possible. Mg was just adequate at Whaka. Otherwise, available macronutrients appeared abundant.

Clonal differences in concentrations of individual nutrients occurred within sites rather than persisting over several sites.

Among clones, foliar nutrient concentrations were independent of growth rates; in particular, differences in P content were unrelated to large differences in tolerance of P deficiency. Hence foliar analysis, although reflecting average nutrient status of a population, appears less reliable for individual genotypes.

Tree-to-tree correlations within clones between different nutrients showed few clear patterns, but there was a general positive association between P and K levels.

Foliage was retained much longer at the sites which were drier and had no evident nutrient deficiency. Foliage longevity although differing between clones was unrelated to crown density or growth rate, except at Glenbervie.

Data are presented on population increase, physical deterioration and decline of red deer during the period 1900-1960, throughout the northern South Island region. Densities are mapped at decade intervals between 1910 and 1950. Population numbers increased rapidly after liberation in 1861; highest densities occurred between 1925 and 1940. Population peaks varied from 3-13 years in duration 10-30 years after colonisation and were primarily influenced by food supplies and speed of population increase in the different regions. Depletion of food supplies by deer is proposed as the reason for general physical deterioration of populations during the peak eruptive period. Decline of food supplies and associated population stress, coupled with harsh winter weather (especially in 1928-31 and 1939-42) resulted in overall herd decline.

Eight selected seed orchard clones of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) were mated together in a factorial mating design, with four clones as female and four as male parents. The progeny were planted at Kaingaroa Forest and measured 5 years after planting.

Vigour, stem straightness, branching quality, and resistance to a needle cast disease associated with Naemacyclus minor all showed highly significant general combining ability effects. Only height, diameter, and volume showed important specific combining ability effects.

The cross between clones 96 and 55 was the best of the 16 crosses tested. Its exceptional vigour resulted from high specific combining ability together with the good general combining ability of both its parents. This full-sib family also exhibited good stem straightness and excellent branching characteristics, and suffered little from needle cast.

A disorder which hitherto had affected radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) seedlings sporadically in Sweetwater Forest Service Nursery became more widespread in the summer-sown crop of 1973. Visual symptoms in 6-month-old seedlings were:

(i) Needle-tip necrosis, generally affecting all but the youngest needles in the apical tuft of primary foliage;

(ii) Depressed and wilted appearance of the seedling tops, resulting from abnormal downward curving of the outer apical tuft needles;

(iii) Apical tuft needles slightly darker than in normal plants; and

(iv) Stunted growth.

Chemical analyses of shoots and foliage from normal and affected seedlings growing in this peat-based nursery showed that the affected seedlings were abnormally low in copper content, containing less than 2 ppm. Peat from an area with a high incidence of the disorder contained only 0.7 ppm total copper. Copper extractable by dilute hydrochloric acid was also low, amounting to 0.1 ppm. Foliage sprays and soil applications of copper oxychloride and cuprous oxide restored affected seedlings to normal appearance and vigour within 6 weeks.

Since its discovery in the central North Island of New Zealand in 1959, Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii (Rohde) Petrak, a needle parasite of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), has spread over much of the country. It can now be found in most areas where Douglas fir is grown in the North Island and in a number of localities in the South Island, mostly in the northern half. In several North Island areas infected trees are now partly defoliated, but whether P. gaeumannii is the prime cause has yet to be determined.

In observations over three years, ascospores were first found within pseudothecia in late August or early September. The percentage of such mature pseudothecia increased to a maximum between September and December but then declined, becoming infrequent during January and February.

Observations on trees and potted seedlings showed that foliage exposed to natural infection for several weeks following flush (late October-November) attained levels of infection exceeding 80%. Infection of foliage exposed after about mid-December to January was reduced to 6% or less. Emergence of pseudothecia was first observed in April and by June they were large enough to be seen with the naked eye.

Sodium salts of chlorinated phenols are added to the solutions for boron diffusion treatment of timber for added protection against moulds and sapstain fungi. The evolution of chlorinated phenols from the treating solutions was studied under laboratory conditions and it was found that their concentration in air above the solutions can be reduced to a safe level by increasing the pH of a solution.

To evaluate selective butt log (6 m) pruning 14 treatments (most combinations of 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-lift pruning removing a nominal 20, 35, 50 and 60% of the green crown at each lift) were applied in unthinned (initial spacing 2.4 x 1.8 m) radiata pine stands. Selected trees were dominants in all treatments, except one. In application, the nominal pruning intensities were substantially exceeded.

The size of the knotty core decreased with an increase in both the severity and the frequency of pruning. For a given severity, pruning to 6 m in three, instead of two, lifts decreased the knotty core by 2.5 cm. For a given pruning lift the size of the knotty core was related to the tree height at the time of pruning. An increase of 1 m in tree height was equivalent to an increase of 1.5 cm in the diameter of the knotty core-indicating the importance of timely pruning.

The size of the largest branch and total basal area of branches removed decreased with an increase in both the intensity and frequency of pruning.

Loss of dominance became important if over 40% of the length of the green crown was pruned. For those schedules considered most practical only 25-50% of the pruned dominants remained dominant. At these pruning intensities the proportion of good form stems increased.

Some loss of height increment occurred in all pruning treatments. Losses increased with the increase in both pruning severity and frequency: basal area increment trends were similar but more marked. For the more practical pruning schedules height and basal area increments were respectively, 11-25%, and 38-57% lower than the controls. In the absence of thinning, restoration of normal increments was observed only in the least severe pruning treatments. Measurements of form at the end of the trial failed to reveal any trends between treatments.

Adventitious ("epicormic") shoots became more prevalent when either pruning severity or frequency increased. For the practical schedules at least 45% of stems can be expected to produce some adventitious shoots. Thinning of pruned stems favoured their development.

Twenty percent of pruned codominants later became dominants.

The major management implication is that since small knotty cores must be a prime pruning objective and since this necessitates intensive pruning in three lifts, heavy thinning at the time of pruning is desirable, in order to minimise losses in dominance and stem diameter growth.

The suggested early tending regime to achieve a mean knotty core of 12.5 cm is:

At height 5.0 m prune 4-500 stems/ha to 2.0-2.5 m (and thin out all unpruned stems at each pruning lift);

At height 7.5 m prune 300 stems/ha to 4.3 m;

At height 10.0 m prune 200 stems/ha to 6.0 m.

Volatiles from radiata forest litter were shown to inhibit seedling growth of Trifolium repens L. (white clover), Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass), and Pinus radiata D. Don. Seed germination of ryegrass and radiata was also reduced. This effect was not due to CO₂, reduced O₂ concentrations, or a compound soluble in water or paraffin wax. The authors have not yet shown that this effect occurs in the field.

Compression wood as indicated by opacity to light was studied in 18 Pinus radiata clones replicated within and between four different sites. At all sites it was more prevalent in the lower bole. Differences between sites in compression wood occurrence could be related to exposure, toppling of trees after planting, and the presence of leaning trees at stand margins. It is suspected that soil phosphate deficiency reduced compression wood formation at one site. The percentage of compression wood, including very mild grades, was typically 30-45%, but differences between sites and up the stem occurred more in the amount of severe compression wood.

Between ramets of a clone at a single site the sum of lean and butt sweep up to 4.25 m from the ground was more closely related to compression wood rating than any other measured crookedness parameter.

The clones differed in propensity to form compression wood. Stems that are initially very straight or very crooked will apparently contain either little or abundant compression wood respectively. However, moderately crooked stems may straighten with strongly developed compression wood or, at the other extreme, remain crooked with only slight compression wood, depending on genotype.

At no site were sinuosity and compression wood correlated, within or between clones.

Within plantations of radiata pine in the south-east of South Australia, soil type strongly influences both the weight of litter accumulated on the forest floor and the litter nitrogen and phosphorus contents. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in litter are smaller, and rates of nutrient turnover are slower on sand podzol soils than on meadow podzols, humus podzols and terra rossa-influenced sands. The weights of nitrogen and phosphorus immobilised in the litter layers on the widely planted sand podzol soils may represent a large proportion of the total weights of these elements in the above-ground components of the plantation stands and could be associated with the problems of maintaining long-term productivity in these plantations.

The structure and composition of the forests of the Wairau were determined from information collected at 365 permanently marked plots.

The forests were classified into associations using a multi-linkage cluster analysis and Sorensen's "k" index of similarity. The structure and habitat of each of these associations were described, and their condition in relation to the influences of animals was evaluated.

Forest condition was found to be poorest in the forests close to timber line, and those to the east of the catchment.

Effects of beating, beater type, and fibre quality on the wet web strength of several radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) kraft pulps were examined.

Wet strength increased linearly with increasing dry strength except for unbeaten and heavily beaten pulps. Wet/dry strength ratios were unaffected by changes in wood density although beating developed wet strength more rapidly in long-fibred than in short-fibred pulps.

Beating effects which influenced dry handsheet properties also affected corresponding wet web properties. Lampen mill beating gave lower wet and dry stretch than either PFI or Valley beating. The wet web behaviour of compression wood and Lampen mill beaten pulps indicated that the internal structure of fibres may influence wet web properties as well as dry handsheet properties.

A survey of basic density in the retention zone of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) posts has shown that there is considerable variation in material treated in commercial operations throughout New Zealand. With high density material a plant operator can fulfill the treatment requirements as set out in the specification of the Timber Preservation Authority (TPA) and yet can fail to meet the retention zone requirements when samples are taken for analysis and results are expressed individually as a percentage of the oven-dry wood weight. This problem is most likely to be met in North Auckland where mean wood density is markedly higher than in the rest of the country.

The response of Pinus caribaea to water stress following transplanting was investigated in a series of experiments in a plant house with three types of planting stock, (a) bare-rooted and wrenched monthly, (b) bare-rooted and wrenched at fortnightly intervals, and (c) potted.

Seedling response, as reflected in relative leaf water content, leaf elongation, and whole plant transpiration was monitored during a drying regime in an environment with a high evaporative demand maintained during daylight hours. Soil water potential and potential evapotranspiration were monitored in conjunction with plant response. Root density and the total length of root per plant were measured at the beginning and end of the drying regime.

The results indicated large differences in the response of bare-rooted and potted planting stock to a regime of drying soil moisture following transplanting. Data for both leaf elongation and transpiration as a function of relative leaf water content indicated that these physiological properties of the three stocks were similar. Modification of the root systems did not greatly alter root density although it did produce large differences in the total length of root per seedling. As differences in the response of planting stock could not be accounted for by differences in root density and the volume of the root zone, it is implied that the seedlings' initial response to water stress was dominated in these studies by the relative water content of the leaf following transplanting.

Interpretation of results in terms of current theory for transfer of water to the root system implies that the effect of root density and the volume of the root zone on the plants' response to water stress requires further study.

The gross morphology of P. radiata bark is quantitatively described and the periodicity of periderm development is discussed. Variability in anatomical components, and in extractives obtained with petroleum ether, ether, ethanol and hot water extraction of the bark is assessed.

Preferential use of the bark from the butt log as a source of phenols for adhesives, and of cork is advocated.

Seedlings of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don), in their first year after transplanting from nursery beds, were labelled with ¹⁴CO₂ then harvested 3 weeks or, in one case, 6 weeks later. The proportion of current photosynthate retained by main stem needles fell from summer to low levels throughout winter then a rise occurred at the time of elongation growth in spring. The share of photosynthate to the lower stem wood rose from summer to a peak in autumn then dropped to low levels in midwinter and at time of flushing.

Cell measurements showed that maximum cross-sectional cell wall area coincided with the maximum relative labelling of the lower stem. When cell production is considered cell wall deposition was at a maximum slightly preceding this maximum relative labelling. The period of increase in relative labelling of the lower stem is prior to latewood formation and at a time of active cell division in the seedlings.

A study of rainfall interception by mountain beech forest was carried out in the Craigieburn Range, Canterbury, for 6 summers. Of the gross rainfall, 60.1% was recorded as throughfall, 1.3% as stemflow and 38.6% as interception loss. High rates of evaporation from interception storage were inferred. Significant linear relationships were determined for gross rainfall and throughfall, and for interception loss. No significant differences could be detected between sites or years for these relationships. Loss of rainfall back into the atmosphere was about 250 to 275 mm for the period November to May.

Epizootics of Paecilomyces farinosus (Dicks ex Fr.) Brown and Smith on overwintering populations of Heliothis armigera Hubner pupae in 1989 and 1970 are described. In the study area the disease patterns were similar in both years. 50% of the pupae were killed before the ends of the winters. It was concluded that it was unlikely to have a significant effect on the numbers of caterpillars in subsequent generations.

Two experiments, designed to give more information about the suppression of litter decomposition by radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) roots and their associated microflora, were carried out. In the first, root activity was reduced by cutting the boundaries of small areas of the forest floor in an unthinned stand. Samples collected after 3, 6, 9, and 12 months showed that less litter accumulated in areas where root activity was reduced and that the development of mycelial mats in the litter was greatest where mycorrhizal roots were present. Soil moisture content was increased where treatment had involved soil disturbance, but no significant differences attributable to treatment were observed in net amounts of major nutrients or pH. In the second experiment, litter decomposition in the presence of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal roots was studied in the laboratory. Decomposition was slower when mycorrhizal roots were present. It was concluded that the presence of external mycelia of mycorrhizal fungi suppressed litter decomposition. The mechanism of suppression is not clear but moisture and pH did not play an important part in it. Competition for nutrients may have been involved. It is suggested that suppression of decomposition by mycorrhizas may be a major factor in the formation of raw humus.

A combination of soil and foliar analyses, simple correlation analysis, and stepwise linear multiple regression analysis was used to investigate growth differences within second rotation, regenerated radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) stands on Mapua hill soils in Tasman Forest, Nelson. The soils have very low levels of most plant nutrients but accumulation sites such as gully bottoms and steeper slopes have been rejuvenated by deposition and erosion processes respectively. These sites thus tend to have a slightly higher nutrient status than the eroded main and spur ridges. This is reflected in better tree growth. The data suggest that phosphorus deficiency, nitrogen deficiency, and high manganese uptake resulting from high soil acidity are the most important nutritional factors limiting growth of radiata pine on hard sites. A close relationship between phosphorus and nitrogen nutrition was indicated. It is suggested that with adequate additions of phosphate and lime, the nitrogen balance of the system could be improved by increasing the rate of mineralisation of soil organic matter to an extent where additions of nitrogen would be unnecessary. A critical foliar level of approximately 700 ppm is indicated for manganese toxicity in radiata pine in Tasman Forest.

Estimates of stocking, basal area and volume of three Canterbury pine stands were made using a distance technique and the standard New Zealand Forest Service bounded plot sampling method. Although the two techniques gave similar estimates of all three parameters, several differences in sampling characteristics were found.

The distance technique involves much less (1/28) time per sample, and about half the time to obtain estimates of equal precision, compared with the time required by plot sampling. Sample means of diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), stocking, and volume on basal area regressions all differed between the two methods, but these differences cancelled out in the determinations of average volume.

Our main conclusion is that, assuming a given amount of time and money is available for field work, the distance technique gives a more comprehensive sample of variability within a stand, and therefore that this method is less prone to errors of inadequate sampling.